Pericles and the Rule of the Many

One, a Few, or Many

1People in the ancient world argued about a hard question: who should hold power? Greek writers often sorted governments by how many people ruled: one person, a few people, or many. Their labels are still used today.

2In a monarchy, one ruler holds power. In ancient Egypt, a pharaoh usually ruled for life and passed the throne to a son or another relative. Egyptians believed the pharaoh stood between the gods and the people, so ordinary Egyptians had no part in choosing him. Persia was also ruled by a king, who sent governors to run its many provinces.

3In an oligarchy, a small group holds power. In many Greek city-states, a few wealthy families made the important decisions. Sparta is often called an oligarchy, even though it had two kings. A council of 28 elders over age 60, together with the kings, prepared laws, and five officials called ephors, chosen each year, held great power. Spartan citizen men met in an assembly, but they mostly shouted to approve or reject what the leaders proposed.

4In Athens, a different idea took hold. After reforms around 508 BCE, Athens became a direct democracy. Citizens met on a hill called the Pnyx, debated, and voted on laws, taxes and war themselves, instead of electing others to vote for them. Many officials were chosen by lottery, and juries could have hundreds of members. However, only free adult men with Athenian parents were citizens. Women, enslaved people and foreigners living in Athens could not vote. Historians estimate that citizens were perhaps 10 to 20 percent of the people living in Athens and its countryside.

5Rome tried yet another system. In 509 BCE, according to Roman tradition, Romans drove out their last king and set up a republic. Citizens elected officials to govern for them. Two consuls led the government and the army for one year at a time, and either one could block the other. The Senate, made up mostly of wealthy former officials who served for life, advised the consuls and controlled public money. Assemblies of citizens voted on laws and elected officials, and tribunes elected by the plebeians, or common citizens, could veto actions that harmed plebeians.

Adapted from Pericles' Funeral Speech, as written by Thucydides

Our government does not copy our neighbors; instead, others copy us. It is called a democracy because power is in the hands of the many, not the few. In private disputes, every citizen is equal before the law. When we choose someone for public office, we look at ability, not at which class he comes from. No man is kept from serving the city because he is poor, if he has something to offer. We do not say that a man who takes no interest in public affairs minds his own business; we call him useless.